Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, better known as Caligula was the third Roman Emperor from AD 37 to 41. His reign was short but memorable as he is known today as a mad emperor.
Youth
Born in 12 CE, Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus is generally known as Caligula, his childhood nickname. He was the son of the famously beloved Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. As a toddler he lived with his parents in the Roman army camps. He loved the army and even had a special military outfit made just for him; military boots included. The soldiers absolutely adored him and treated him as their little mascot. They eventually started referring to him as “little bootsie,” as he wore a smaller version of the army boots: caliga.
The happy family life, however, would not last as his father Germanicus fell suspiciously ill and died in Syria. His mother, Agrippina the Elder, returned to Rome and started participating in Roman politics. This was a definite no-no, as women were legally minors and had very few rights. Nevertheless, Agrippina the Elder was very active politically, and would thrust her eldest sons into the public eye. Naturally, this culminated in her and her eldest son’s deaths. Caligula was spared from this purge as he was considered too young to have been involved in any way. He was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia Minor.
Adulthood
Normally, when a boy reaches the age of 14(ish), he is given his toga virilis, which indicates that he is now a man and a fully functioning Roman citizen. He would then be eligible to join the senate, get a job, and basically have a life. This was a huge moment in a Roman’s life and often had celebrations associated with it. Caligula, however, was deliberately kept as a minor by his great-uncle, the emperor Tiberius, who was legally the head of the family. While the reasoning was most likely political, it was still a cruel and humiliating thing to do to a young man who was forced to remain in children’s clothes. Eventually, when he was 19, Tiberius called Caligula over to his island, away from Rome, and basically chucked the toga at him. No ceremony, no nothing. Caligula was now officially a man, but away from Rome, stuck on an island with the man responsible for the deaths of his father, mother, and brothers.
Crowning of the new Emperor
Caligula remained on that isolated island with Tiberius for 6 years until the emperor died in 37 CE. Suddenly, Caligula was able to return to Rome, as the new emperor. He had never led an army. He had never participated in the Senate. He had been completely isolated from the real world for 6 years. And now he was expected to run it.
Despite all of this, the Roman public was ecstatic that Tiberius was finally dead, and that the new emperor was the son of Germanicus. Germanicus was adored by the Roman public, and his last remaining son, the one the army affectionally called “little bootsy,” the little boy who was seen as the Roman army’s little mascot was the new emperor. The entire city basically turned into a party town as everybody was celebrating the great news.
The first thing Caligula did was to retrieve his mother and brother’s ashes and give them a proper burial in the Mausoleum of Augustus. He did everything he could to emphasize how great his family was, and this included his sisters, notably, Agrippina the Younger. He even went so far as to give his sisters the same privileges as the Vestal Virgins (without the virginal obligations) which eliminated the need for a guardian, allowing them to enter into legal contracts on their own authority. He essentially gave them actual freedom. Additionally, touching or harming a Vestal Virgin was an automatic death penalty, Caligula’s sisters also now had this immense protection. Caligula also changed a few other oaths and prayers that essentially elevated his sisters to his own level, that of an emperor.
For a few months, life unfolded almost like a continuous celebration. Caligula was on display for all of Rome to see, with his sisters by his side. The children of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder were in charge of Rome. Descendants of the Divine Augustus had regained control over the Empire. Tragically, this blessed year would not end on a high. In September of 37 CE, Caligula mysteriously fell ill.
Mysterious illness
Modern doctors and scholars have often speculated about the nature of Caligula’s illness. Possible physical repercussions aside, the psychological fear this mysterious illness created would have been more than enough to make the man paranoid. The Romans did not understand illnesses or diseases in the same way we see them today. They didn’t know about germs, bacteria, or viruses. They knew of curses and poisons, betrayals and murders. Caligula’s own father, Germanicus, was believed to have been poisoned despite Rome’s love for him. Caligula had spent years isolated on the island of Capri with Tiberius who was incredibly paranoid (and was the one who had killed Caligula’s family). When Tiberius finally died, like his sisters, Caligula must have believed that the threat was over. He was free. He could become emperor and live the life he was meant to have… If so, then why did he fall ill so suddenly after returning to Rome? Maybe Tiberius was right? Maybe everyone was out to get him? Was this illness natural, or was it more likely to be the result of a curse from someone far away, or worse, poison from someone close-by? Who was trying to kill him? Why? Where? How? It really doesn’t take a skilled psychologist to draw a clear line from his mysterious illness to his future paranoia. As always, this created a self-fulfilling prophecy in which his paranoia led him to act pre-emptively, which in turn led his own allies to fear for their lives.
This is the point in history where several prominent figures who could have been dangerous to Caligula get killed mysteriously. Tiberius’ own son was murdered by the Praetorian guard (the emperor’s bodyguards). Caligula was protecting himself and his family. However, in 38 CE, Caligula’s youngest sister, Drusilla, died of a fever. She had been married to Caligula’s best friend, Lepidus. Caligula was devastated by the loss of his sister, publicly breaking down and crying while giving her eulogy. He instituted a public period of mourning and deified her. He also fled the city. Clearly, he was powerless to protect his family.
Fear
To the horror of the senate, Caligula reinstated the charge of maiestas. Accusing someone of maiestas is similar to accusing someone of treason, but with an extra religious connotation. Tiberius had used the charge of maiestas to kill off anyone he was annoyed at. Caligula had immediately abolished the practice when he became emperor (to the public’s adoration). But he reinstated it about 2 years later (to the public’s dismay). One of the worst things about maiestas, was that if you accused someone of it, and they were found guilty, they would be killed, and you would be rewarded with all of their wealth. I’m sure you can see where many people would rightfully start becoming just as paranoid as Caligula was clearly becoming.
The historical records for the next few events are quite confusing as Caligula’s paranoia seems to reach its peak. He falls in love with and marries Caesonia who in turn gives him an heir. For completely unknown reasons he fires the governors of Syria and Pannonia, removes the consuls, and then runs off to Germany to execute one of his military commanders there. Meanwhile, Agrippina the Younger, Livilla and Lepidus (Caligula’s remaining sisters, and the dead Drusilla’s husband) are charged with immoral behaviour and arrested. Lepidus is executed, while Agrippina the Younger and Livilla are both exiled.
It is possible that Agrippina and Lepidus had been involved in a plot to overthrow Caligula, perhaps even scheming with some of the military commanders in Germany. Caesonia had given Caligula an heir and had his complete and utter devotion. Caesonia’s child replaced Nero (Agrippina the Younger’s son) as the likely heir to the throne. This meant that sooner or later, Nero would be killed to ensure the safety of Caligula’s child. Agrippina understood this threat and may have sought to protect her son and herself by overthrowing an ever increasingly paranoid emperor.
Now that the list of people out to get Caligula included his sisters as well as his best friend, his behaviour became even more extreme. He threw the most ridiculously lavish parties (something he had learned from Tiberius), and he had several notable men murdered. Suddenly, Caligula was emulating all of Tiberius’ worse impulses. A monster had been created and given absolute power. The Roman elite would not sleep soundly for a long time.
This state of affairs continued until Caligula was murdered by his own bodyguards in 41 CE. He had ruled 3 years, 10 months, and 8 days; he was 29 years old. They also murdered his wife Caesonia, and their daughter. The plot to kill him was initially seen as a valiant attempt at restoring the Roman Republic. Unfortunately, the Praetorian guards were not ready to give up their privileged position and instead chose Caligula’s uncle, Claudius, as the new emperor.
It should also be noted that Caligula's reign of terror had been relatively limited to the Roman elite. One ancient writer (Josephus, Book 19) described Caligula walking comfortably among the public and that his assassination was dangerous because he was honoured and loved by the people and the soldiers. It is therefore possible that Caligula may not have been the horrible monster as described by most ancient writers (who wrote on behalf of or for the Roman elite).
Text: Cindy Levesque. MENAM Archaeology. Copyright 2023.
Image: Wikimedia Commons
Further Reading:
Emma Southon, 2018. Agrippina
Suetonius, The lives of the Twelve Caesars: Caligula. www.perseus.tufts.edu
Tacitus, The Annals. www.perseus.tufts.edu
Josephus, The Antiquities of the Jews. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2848/2848-h/2848-h.htm
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