The forts of Middle Kingdom Egypt

During the Middle Kingdom (c. 2064 - 1797 BCE), specifically the 12th Dynasty (1991 -1802 BCE) King Senwosret I (c. 1971-1328 BCE) conquered the second cataract (the Nile is divided into ‘cataracts’, which are shallower and rockier areas, and start from the southern part going upwards) of the Nile. His efforts were carried on by Senwosret III (c. 1878-1843 BCE), and together they established a strong military presence in the second cataract by building a string of military forts. The forts were built in two stages; on plain ground during Senwosret I’s reign and more rugged and uneven terrain during Senwosret III’s. Little is known about the Egyptian 12th Dynasty campaigns into Nubia (present day Sudan and Southern Egypt), but it is known that Senwosret I initiated two campaigns into Nubia, one during the 10th year of his reign and one during the 18th year where he managed to secure Egypts southern border. Slightly more is known about the efforts of Senwosret III, he is considered to be one of the most prominent rulers of the 12th Dynasty with his eight campaigns into Nubia, as well as several other campaigns into other areas, where he erected a number of forts in toward the second cataract and led Egypt into an era of peace and prosperity. During years eight, ten, 16 and 19 of his reign he led major campaigns into Nubia.

Stela of Senwosret III

Senwosret III’s year eight stela at Semna South tells the story about his victory against the Nubians and how he made the southern front safer and prevented new attacks against Egypt. His year 16 stela at Semna mentions his military activities in the area as well as him urging his successors to maintain the new border.

Despite this lack of detailed accounts of the military campaigns in to Nubia, the names of the forts suggest that there was a perceived threat from the Nubians and the Kerma culture (2500 - 1500 BCE), with names such as “Warding off the Bows” (Kumma), “Repelling the Inu” (Uronarti), “Curbing the Countries” (Shalfak) and “Subduing the Oasis dwellers” (Mirgissa).

The forts formed a defense system reaching over 300 km between the first and second cataract. They were located some 65 km apart from each other from the fort Buhen in the North to Semna in the South. They helped control trade coming from the south (present day Sudan) and were used to extract local resources, and were generally located on the west bank of the Nile, with the exception of the fort Kumma, which was located directly across from Semna in the east. The forts were strategically located close enough to each other to be able to provide military support if it was needed. The ground plan of the forts share a number of similarities, which suggests that they were deliberately designed to follow the same architectural layout and perhaps even designed by the same architect. The forts were divided into quarters consisting of workshops, living quarters, barracks, store rooms, and commander’s quarters and all of the forts had a quay to access the Nile. However, the commander’s quarter and the barracks can only be found in six of the twelve forts. This likely means that six of the forts were command posts and six were administrative buildings - however there is no way to know that for sure. We do know that trade from the south had to go through the forts Semna and Kumma, so it isn’t too far-fetched to draw that conclusion.

Text: Anna Sunneborn Gudnadottir. Copyright MENAM Archaeology. 2022.

Image credits:

1. Semna and Kumma from the west: Karl Richard Lepsius (1849 to 1859).

2. Semna stela: Magnus Manske.